“MAKALAH BAHASA INGGRIS”
(Makalah
ini disusun untuk memenuhi tugas mata pelajaran Bahasa Inggris)
Guru
Pembimbing : Ibu Ria Lamhot Simbolon, M.Pd
.jpg)
Disusun
oleh :
Nama : Galih Mega Pratiwi
Kelas : XI IPA 3
SMA
NEGERI 6 KOTA TANGERANG
Jln.
Nyi Mas Melati No.2 Kel. Karanganyar Kec. Neglasari Telp. 021.5587229 Tangerang
2014
Kata
Pengantar
Assalamualaikum Wr.Wb
Terima kasih puji syukur kehadirat Allah
SWT, dengan berkat dan karunianya saya dapat menyelesaikan tugas makalah ini
dengan mencari dan mengunduhnya. Dan tidak lupa saya berterimakasih kepada Guru
Bahasa Inggris saya, berkatnya saya bisa membuat tugas ini dengan sebisa
mungkin.
Fungsi utama tugas ini untuk
mencerdaskan otak kita dan mampu mengingat isi dari makalah ini. Semoga makalah
ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua.
Wassalamualaikum Wr.Wb
DAFTAR
ISI
Cover......................................................................................................................................i
Kata Pengantar.......................................................................................................................ii
Daftar Isi...............................................................................................................................iii
Narrative text..........................................................................................................................1
Descriptive text.......................................................................................................................3
Recount text...........................................................................................................................5
Procedure Text.......................................................................................................................6
Spoof text...............................................................................................................................7
If Conditional Sentence............................................................................................................9
Relative Pronouns.................................................................................................................11
Modal Verb..........................................................................................................................15
Preposition...........................................................................................................................16
Conjuntions..........................................................................................................................18
Gerund.................................................................................................................................28
Elliptical
Sentences................................................................................................................31
1. Narrative
Pengertian Narrative Text
Jika melihat pada kamus bahasa
Inggris, secara harfiah narrative bermakna (1) a spoken or written account
of connected events; a story. (2) the narrated part of a literary work, as
distinct from dialogue. (3) the practice or art of narration.
(Narrative bermakna : 1. sebuah
cerita baik terucap atau tertulis tentang peristiwa-peristiwa yang berhubungan.
2. bagian yang diceritakan dalam sebuah karya sastra, berbeda dengan dialog. 3.
Praktik atau seni bercerita)
Jika
disimpulkan, maka sebuah narrative text adalah teks yang berisi sebuah cerita
baik tertulis ataupun tidak tertulis dan terdapat rangkaian peristiwa yang
saling terhubung.
·
Generic Structure dari Narrative Text
Bagi sobat yang masih duduk di bangku sekolah tingkat menengah, penjelasan mengenai narrative texts tak usah sulit-sulit ya.. Intinya, narrative text ini mempunyai struktur / susunan seperti di bawah ini :
1. Orientation : It is about the opening
paragraph where the characters of the story are introduced.(berisi pengenalan
tokoh, tempat dan waktu terjadinya cerita (siapa atau apa, kapan dan dimana)
2. Complication : Where the problems in the
story developed. (Permasalahan muncul / mulai terjadi dan berkembang)
3. Resolution : Where the problems in the
story is solved. Masalah selesai, --- secara baik "happy ending"
ataupun buruk "bad ending".
Kadangkala susunan (generic
structure) narrative text bisa berisi: Orientation, Complication,
Evaluation, Resolution dan Reorientation. Meski “Evaluation” dan
“Reorientation” merupakan optional; bisa ditambahkan dan bisa tidak. Evaluation
berisi penilaian/evaluasi terhadap jalannya cerita atau konflik. Sedangkan Reorientation
berisi penyimpulan isi akhir cerita.
Jika sudah mahir membuat cerita narrative, susunannya bisa diubah-ubah, yang terpenting bagian-bagian di atas masih tetap ada dalam tulisan narrative.
Jika sudah mahir membuat cerita narrative, susunannya bisa diubah-ubah, yang terpenting bagian-bagian di atas masih tetap ada dalam tulisan narrative.
·
Ciri Kebahasan Narrative Text
Pada Narrative Text,
terdapat beberapa ciri-ciri antara lain sebagai berikut :
1. Mengunakan
Action Verb dalam bentuk Past Tense. Misalnya : Climbed, Turned, Brought, dsb.
2. Menggunakan
Nouns tertentu sebagai kata ganti orang, hewan dan benda tertentu dalam cerita.
Misalnya : the king, the queen, dsb.
3. Menggunakan
Adjectives yang membentuk noun phrase. Misalnya : long black hair, two red
apples, dsb.
4. Menggunakan
Time Connectives dan Conjunctions untuk mengurutkan kejadian-kejadian. Misalnya
: then, before, after, soon, dsb.
5. Menggunakan
Adverbs dan Adverbial Phrase untuk menunjukkan lokasi kejadian atau peristiwa.
Misalnya : here, in the mountain, happily ever after, dsb.
·
Grammar Used dalam Narrative Text
Grammar (tata bahasa) yang sering muncul dalam membuat narrative text adalah:
Menggunakan tenses "Past", baik simple, past perfect, past continuous, past perfect continuous, atau bisa saja past future continuous. (aturan ini bukan aturan wajib yang mutlak harus dipenuhi)
Lihat contohnya di bawah ini :
Contoh Narrative Text (1)
Three Fishes
Orientation
Once, three fishes lived in a pond. One evening, some fishermen passed by the pond and saw the fishes. 'This pond is full of fish', they told each other excitedly. 'We have never fished here before. We must come back tomorrow morning with our nets and catch these fish!' Then the fishermen left.
(Suatu ketika, terdapatlah tiga ikan yang hidup di sebuah kolam. Di suatu sore, beberapa nelayan melewati kolam tersebut dan melihat ikan-ikan itu. "Kolam ini penuh dengan ikan", merka berbicara satu sama lian dengan bergairah. "Kita belum pernah memancing di sini sebelumnya. Kita harus datang lagi besok pagi dengan jaring kita dan manangkap ikan-ikan ini!" Kemudian nelayan-nelayan tersebut pergi.)
Complication
When the eldest of the three fishes heard this, he was troubled. He called the other fishes together and said, 'Did you hear what the fishermen said? We must leave this pond at once. The fishermen will return tomorrow and kill us all!' The second of the three fishes agreed. 'You are right', he said. 'We must leave the pond.'
(Ketika ikan yang paling tua mendengar ini, dia gelisah. Dia memanggil ikan-ikan yang lain dan berkata, 'Apakah kamu dengar apa yang dikatakan nelayan itu? Kita harus meninggalkan kolam ini. Nelayan itu akan kembali besok dan membunuh kita semua!' Ikan kedua setuju. 'Kamu benar', dia berkata. 'Kita harus meninggalkan kolam ini.')
But the youngest fish laughed. 'You are worrying without reason', he said. 'We have lived in this pond all our lives, and no fisherman has ever come here. Why should these men return? I am not going anywhere - my luck will keep me safe.'
(Tetapi ikan yang paling muda tertawa. 'Kamu cemas tanpa ada alasan', dia berkata. 'Kita telah tinggal di kolam ini semur hidup kita, dan tidak ada nelayan yang datang kesini. Kenapa harus orang-orang itu kembali? Saya tidak akan pergi kemana-mana - keberuntunganku akan menyelamatkan ku.')
Resolution
The eldest of the fishes left the pond that very evening with his entire family. The second fish saw the fishermen coming in the distance early next morning and left the pond at once with all his family. The third fish refused to leave even then.
(Ikan tertua meninggalkan kolam tersebut pada sora hari dengan seluruh keluarganya. Ikan kedua melihat nelayan datang di kejauhan pada pagi hari dan meninggalkan kolam tersebut dengan seluruh keluarganya. Ikan ketiga tetap menolak untuk pergi.)
The fishermen arrived and caught all the fish left in the pond. The third fish's luck did not help him - he too was caught and killed.
(Nelayan tersebut pun datang dan menangkap semua ikan yang tertinggal di kolam. Keberuntungan ikan ketiga tidak menyelamatkannya - dia juga tertangkap dan dibunuh.)
The fish who saw trouble ahead and acted before it arrived as well as the fish who acted as soon as it came both survived. But the fish who relied only on luck and did nothing at all died. So also in life.
(Ikan yang cemas dahulu dan bertindak sebelum nelayan datang dan ikan yang tertindak ketika nelayan datang bershasil selamat. Tetapi ikan yang mempercayakan hanya pada keberuntungan dan tidak berbuat apa-apa semuanya mati. Begitu juga pada kehidupan.)
2.
Descriptive
Pengertian Descriptive Text
Dalam artian
luas, Description, seperti dijelaskan oleh Kane (2000: 352), diartikan seperti
pada kalimat di bawah ini :
Description
is about sensory experience—how something looks, sounds, tastes. Mostly it is
about visual experience, but description also deals with other kinds of
perception.
Jadi, jika disimpulkan dari penjelasan
Kane di atas, tulisan deskriptif bermakna teks yang menjelaskan tentang
pengalaman yang berhubungan dengan pancaindera, seperti apa bentuknya,
suaranya, rasanya. Kebanyakan teks deskriptif memang tentang pengalaman visual,
tapi nyatanya pengalaman selain dari indera penglihatanpun bisa digunakan dalam
descriptive text.
Namun secara khusus, descriptive text
adalah, "...... is a text which says what a person or a thing is like.
Its purpose is to describe and reveal a particular person, place, or
thing." [teks yang menjelaskan gambaran seseorang atau benda.
Tujuannya adalah mengambarkan atau mengungkapkan orang, tempat atau benda
tertentu]
Jadi, bisa dikatakan bahwa descriptive text ini adalah teks yang menjelaskan tentang seperti apakah orang atau suatu benda dideskripsikan, baik bentuknya, sifat-sifatnya, jumlahnya dan lain-lain. Tujuan (purpose) dari descriptive text pun jelas, yaitu untuk menjelaskan, menggambarkan atau mengungkapkan seseorang atau suatu benda.
Jadi, bisa dikatakan bahwa descriptive text ini adalah teks yang menjelaskan tentang seperti apakah orang atau suatu benda dideskripsikan, baik bentuknya, sifat-sifatnya, jumlahnya dan lain-lain. Tujuan (purpose) dari descriptive text pun jelas, yaitu untuk menjelaskan, menggambarkan atau mengungkapkan seseorang atau suatu benda.
·
Generic
Structure dalam Descriptive Text
Ketika menulis descriptive text, ada
beberapa susunan umum / generic
structure
(sebenarnya tidak wajib) agar tulisan kita dianggap benar. Susunan tersebut
adalah :
- Identification
: berisi tentang identifikasi hal / seorang yang akan dideskripsikan.
- Description
: berisi tentang penjelasan / penggambaran tentang hal / seseorang dengan
menyebutkan beberapa sifatnya.
Ketika
kita menulis descriptive text, hal yang wajib kita ketahui adalah cara kita
menyampaikan deskripsi tulisan kita tersebut. Oleh karena itu pemahaman tentang
adjective (kata sifat
bahasa Inggris)
wajib kita kuasai.
Contoh
Descriptive Text (1)
Tenang Ibu
My mother is a beautiful person. She is
not tall but not short, and she has curly hair and brown. Her eyes color are
like honey and her color skin color light brown, and she has a beautiful smile.
Her weight likes 120 lbs.
She is a very kind person. She is very lovely, friendly, patient, and she loves to help people. I love my mom, because she is a good example to me. She loves being in the Church, and she loves sing and dance too.
She is a very good child, wife and mother. She always takes care of her family. She likes her house to be clean and organized. She a very organized person, and all things in the house are in the right place. She doesn't like messes.
She always has a smile on her face. She is so sweet and lovely. I like when I am going to sleep or went I wake up or when I am going to go to some places, she always give me a kiss, and when the family have a problem she always be with us to helps us and to give us all her love.
She is a very kind person. She is very lovely, friendly, patient, and she loves to help people. I love my mom, because she is a good example to me. She loves being in the Church, and she loves sing and dance too.
She is a very good child, wife and mother. She always takes care of her family. She likes her house to be clean and organized. She a very organized person, and all things in the house are in the right place. She doesn't like messes.
She always has a smile on her face. She is so sweet and lovely. I like when I am going to sleep or went I wake up or when I am going to go to some places, she always give me a kiss, and when the family have a problem she always be with us to helps us and to give us all her love.
3. Recount text
Pengertian Recount Text
·
Generic Structure dari Recount Text
Generic
structure (susunan umum) recount text ini terdiri dari:
- Orientation tells who was involved,
what happened, where the events took place, and when it happened.
("Orientation" menceritakan siapa saja yang terlibat
dalam cerita, apa yang terjadi, di mana tempat peristiwa
terjadi, dan kapan terjadi peristiwanya)
- Events tell what happened and in
what sequence. ("Event" menceritakan apa yang terjadi (lagi)
dan menceritakan urutan ceritanya)
- Reorientation consists of
optional-closure of events/ending. ("Reorientation" berisi
penutup cerita / akhir cerita)
Contoh
Recount Text (1)
My Adolescence
I had my adolescence when I was thirteen.
It started with acne that showed up on my face. It was very annoying. It lowered my self-esteem and I was embarrassed to come out of my house and play with friends.
Fortunately,
my Mum gave me a good medicine. In three weeks, the acnes started to vanish
although those showed some black spots in my face.
That was my bad experience with adolescence, though there were still lots of good experience too.
Contoh Recount Text (2)
My Holiday in Bali
When I was 2nd grade of senior high school, my friends and I went to Bali. We were there for three days. I had many impressive experiences during the vacation.
First day,
we visited Sanur Beach in the morning. We saw the beautiful sunrise together.
It was a great scenery. Then, we checked in to the hotel. After prepared our
selves, we went to Tanah Lot. We met so many other tourists there. They were
not only domestic but also foreign tourists.
Second day,
we enjoyed the day on Tanjung Benoa beach. We played so many water sports such
as banana boat, jetsky, speedboat etc. We also went to Penyu island to see many
unique animals. They were turtles, snakes, and sea birds. We were very happy.
In the afternoon, we went to Kuta Beach to see the amazing sunset and enjoyed
the beautiful wave.
The last
day, we spent our time in Sangeh. We could enjoy the green and shady forest.
There were so many monkies. They were so tame but sometimes they could be
naughty. We could make a close interaction with them. After that, we went to
Sukowati market for shopping. That was my lovely time. I bought some Bali
T-Shirt and souvenirs.
In the
evening, we had to check out from the hotel. We went back home bringing so many
amazing memories of Bali.
4.
PROCEDURE TEXT
PENGERTIAN
PROCEDURE TEXT
Ada tiga
definisi "umum" mengenai procedure text : (1)Texts that explain how
something works or how to use instruction / operation manuals e.g. how to use
the video, the computer, the tape recorder, the photocopier, the fax. (2) Texts
that instruct how to do a particular activity e.g. recipes, rules for games,
science experiments, road safety rules. (3) Texts that deal with human
behaviour eg how to live happily, how to succeed.
Dari
keterangan di atas, dapat kita garis bawahi bahwa procedure text adalah (1)
Teks yang menjelaskan bagaimana sesuatu bekerja atau teks yang menjelaskan cara
menggunakan pedoman instruksi / penggunaan. contoh : cara menggunakan video,
komputer, mesin fotokopi, fax dll. (2) Teks yang menunjukan cara melakukan
aktifitas tertentu. contoh : resep, aturan bermain game, eksperimen ilmiah,
aturan keamanan berkendara. (3) Teks yang berhubungan dengan tingkah laku
manusia. contoh : cara hidup bahagian, cara sukses. dll..
The purpose procedural text is to
tell the reader how to do or make something. The information is presented in a
logical sequence of events which is broken up into small sequenced steps. These
texts are usually written in the present tense. The most common example of a procedural
text is a recipe.
Tujuan
procedure text adalah memberitahu pembaca cara melakukan / membuat sesuatu.
Informasi disajikan dengan urutan peristiwa yang logis. Peristiwa tersebut
biasanya dibagi menjadi beberapa langkah-langkah terpisah. Teks ini biasanya
ditulis menggunakan present tense. Contoh paling umum procedure text adalah
resep masakan.
Seperti
halnya pengertian procedure text di atas, generic structure (susunan umum)
procedure text juga ada tiga :
(1) Goal
(Maksud atau tujuan)
(2) Material
Needed (Materi / alat / bahan yang dibutuhkan)
(3) Methods
or Steps (Metode / langkah-langkah)
Contoh Procedure Text
Steps
on Writing
1.
Exploring
ideas
You
are going to write a composition about a problem. Write down :
a.
Facts
b.
Details
of problem
c.
Don’t
worry about grammar, spelling, or punctuation
2.
Enriching
your knowledge about the chosen topic by reading other references or source of
information
3.
Writing
the first draft
Write
your first draft. Begin by completing the following topic sentence. Use the
words in parentheses as a guide
4.
Editing.
Here is a list of things to check in your composition. Editing cheklist
a.
Is
there any topic ?
b.
Is
there any tittle?
c.
Is
there any arguments?
d.
Is
there any reiteration?
e.
Are
the verbs correct?
f.
Do
your sentences begin with capital letters?
g.
Do
your sentences end with periods or other appropiate punctuation?
h.
Is
your spelling correct?
5.
Writing
the second draft
5.
SPOOF TEXT
Spoof text
adalah salah satu jenis teks yang dianggap paling menyenangkan untuk
dipelajari. Dengan adanya Spoof text, setidaknya siswa yang selalu cemberut
saat belajar bahasa Inggris bisa terobati.
·
DEFINISI SPOOF
TEXT
Disebutkan dalam
Cambridge Advance Learner's Dictionary Online, ada dua makna spoof. Pertama, sebagai
kata benda, spoof bermakna, "a funny and silly piece of writing, music,
theatre, etc. that copies the style of an original work". Sedang kedua,
spoof sebagai kata kerja, bermakna, "to try to make someone believe in
something that is not true, as a joke."
Dari kedua arti
spoof di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengertian spoof text adalah sebuah teks
yang berisi tentang humor meski sebagian teksnya sudah dimodifikasi dari
aslinya.
·
GENERIC
STRUCTURE OF SPOOF TEXT
Generic
Structure (Susunan umum) dalam spoof text adalah :
1. Orientation, berisi pengenalan tokoh,
latar, setting dll.
2. Events, berisi peristiwa atau kejadian
3. Twist, ending cerita (akhir cerita yang
dianggap lucu, kadang tidak terduga)
Penjelasan
mengenai orientation dan event sudah sering dibahas, khususnya pada pelajaran
narrative text dan recount text. Dalam spoof text pun, orientation dan event
tidak jauh berbeda dengan yang ada dalam narrative dan recount.
Sedang untuk
twist, bagi seorang yang belum terbiasa menulis cerita lucu mungkin sangat
sulit; untuk memahami twist saja sudah sulit, apalagi mengarang sendiri.
Ya, untuk
memahami twist, kita membutuhkan selera humor tinggi hingga kita mampu mencerna
apa dibalik kelucuan yang terkandung dalam twist ini.
Contoh Spoof
Text (1)
Absence
Joe's Mother got
angry because her son got a low mark on English test.
"Why did
you get such a low mark on that test?" Asked mother angrily. Asked by his
angry mother, Joe just kept silent and went out.
A few moment,
Joe came back home and met his mother again. His mother asked the same
question.
Joe answered
steadily, "Because of absence."
"You mean
you were absent on the day of the test?" Mother wondered.
Joe replied,
"No, but the kid who sits next to me was."
Contoh Spoof
Text (2)
SAM TING WONG
Jacky Wong got
married with Lia Wong. Both of them had a white skin and straight hair. They are
really a well-matched couple.
One year later,
Wong family got a new baby. A nurse brought them a son with curly hair and a
black skin.
The nurse
congratulated and said, "What name will you give to this son?"
With a confused
face, Jacky Wong grumbled, "Sam Ting Wong!"
6.
IF CONDITIONAL
SENTENCE
·
Type 1
Use
It is possible to fulfil a condition
which is given in the if-clause.
Form
|
if clause
|
main clause
|
|
Simple Present
|
will-future
or infinitive or Modal + infinitive |
Examples
If you see John
tonight, tell him to e-mail me.
If Ben gets up
early, he can catch the bus.
The if-clause can be
at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
If I study, I will
pass the exams.
I will pass the
exams if I study.
·
Type 2
Use
It is theoretically possible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.
Form
|
if clause
|
main clause
|
|
Simple Past
|
would +
infinitive
or could + infinitive or might + infinitive |
Examples
If I studied, I would pass the exams.
If I studied, I could pass the exams.
If I studied, I might pass the exams.
The if-clause can be at the beginning or
at the end of the sentence.
If I studied, I would pass the exams.
I would pass the exams if I studied.
·
Type 3
Use
It is impossible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.
Form
|
if clause
|
main clause
|
|
Past Perfect
|
would + have +
past participle
or could + have + past participle or might + have + past participle |
Examples
If I studied, I would pass the exams.
If I studied, I could pass the exams.
If I studied, I might pass the exams.
The if-clause can be at the beginning or
at the end of the sentence.
If I studied, I would pass the exams.
I would pass the examsif I studied.
Special
text and structure
Structure
If-clauses can be clause-initial (1), clause-medial (2) as well as
clause-final (3). |
(1)
|
If you like, we can catch
a movie.
|
|
(2)
|
We, if
you like, can catch a movie.
|
|
(3)
|
We can catch a movie if you like.
|
TYPES
Aside from the typical type I, II, III strucure, conditionals can be divided
into two categories: real and unreal conditionals.
Real Condition
|
If I have money, I spend it.
|
Present Real Conditional - type I
|
|
If I had money, I spent it.
|
Past Real Conditional - type I
|
|
If I have money, I will/am going to spend it.
|
Future Real Conditional - type I
|
Unreal Condition
|
If I had had money, I would have spent it.
|
|
Past unreal Conditional - type III
|
|
If I had money, I would spend it.
|
I think about spending the money
TODAY.
|
Present unreal Conditional - type II
|
|
If I had money, I would spend it.
|
I think about spending the money NEXT
WEEK.
|
Future unreal Conditional - type II
|
Special Features
Modal verbs
Main clauses with real conditional tenses can have modal verbs.|
If I have money, I can spend it.
|
|
If I had money, I could spend it.
(I would be able to spend it.) |
|
If I had money, I might spend it.
(I would possibly spend it.) |
7.
Relative pronouns
in restrictive relative clauses
Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT
separated from the main clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses
(also known as defining relative clauses) add essential information about the
antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the
sentence's meaning correctly and cannot be omitted. In other words, without the
restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses:
|
Function in
the sentence |
Reference to
|
||||
|
People
|
Things / concepts
|
Place
|
Time
|
Explanation
|
|
|
Subject
|
who, that
|
which, that
|
|
|
|
|
Object
|
(that, who, whom)*
|
(which, that)*
|
where
|
when
|
what/why
|
|
Possessive
|
whose
|
whose, of which
|
|
|
|
Examples
Relative pronouns used as a subject of a restrictive relative
clause:This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.
It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.
Relative pronouns used as an object in a restrictive relative clause:
1) As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position, but formal English includes the relative pronoun. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, which is used instead of that, for example, "in which," "for which," "about which," "through which," etc. (please see the third example below):
Formal English: This is the man to whom I wanted to speak and whose name I had forgotten.
Informal English: This is the man I wanted to speak to and whose name I'd forgotten.
Formal English: The library did not have the book that I wanted.
Informal English: The library didn't have the book I wanted.
Formal English: This is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the United States.
Informal English: This is the house I lived in when I first came to the United States.
2) In American English, the word whom is not used very often. "Whom" is more formal than "who" and is very often omitted while speaking:
Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you
have just spoken is my teacher.
Conversational Use: The woman you have just spoken to is my
teacher.
OR
The woman who you have just spoken to is my teacher.
However, "whom" may not be omitted
if preceded by a preposition because the relative pronoun functions as the
object of the preposition:OR
The woman who you have just spoken to is my teacher.
The visitor for whom you were waiting has arrived.
Relative pronouns used as a possessive in a restrictive relative clause:
Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. The antecedent of "whose" can be both people and things:
The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a complimentary suite in a hotel.
The book whose author won a Pulitzer has become a bestseller.
Relative pronouns in
non-restrictive relative clauses
Although similar in use, relative pronouns that introduce a non-restrictive
relative clauses ARE separated from the main clause by a comma (in most
instances). Typically, which is the preferred relative pronoun
for indicating that a relative clause is non-restrictive. Non-restrictive
relative clauses (also known as non-defining relative
clauses) provide non-essential information about the antecedent in
the main clause. The information is not crucial for understanding the
sentence's meaning correctly and can be omitted without affecting the
sentence's meaning. In other words, non-restrictive relative clauses are an
aside that adds extra information.
Examples
Relative pronouns used as a subject of a non-restrictive relative
clause:The science fair, which lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony.
The movie turned out to be a blockbuster hit, which came as a surprise to critics.
Relative pronouns used as an object in a non-restrictive relative clause:
The sculpture, which he admired, was moved into the basement of the museum to make room for a new exhibit.
The theater, in which the play debuted, housed 300 people.
"That" vs. "Who"
and "Which"
The relative pronoun that can only be used in restrictive
clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to
persons) or which (referring to things) in informal English.
Whereas that is often used while speaking,
who and which are more common in
formal written English.Conversational, Informal: William Kellogg was the man that lived in the late nineteenth century and had some weird ideas about raising children.
Written, Formal: William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late nineteenth century and had some weird ideas about raising children.
Conversational, Informal: The café that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.
Written, Formal: The café, which sells the best coffee in town, has recently been closed.
Some special uses of relative
pronouns in restrictive clauses
that / whoWhen referring to people, both that and who can be used in informal language. "That" may be used to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or a group of people:
He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.
I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.
However, when speaking about a particular person in formal language, who is preferred:
The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.
The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.
that / which
There are several cases when that is more appropriate than which:
1) After the pronouns "all," "any(thing)," "every(thing)," "few," "little," "many," "much," "no(thing)," "none," "some(thing)":
The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.
Dessert is all that he wants.
8.
Modal
verbs
The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would, should.
They are used with other verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and
so on. Below is a list showing the most useful modals and their most common
meanings:|
Modal |
Meaning |
Example |
|
Can |
to express ability |
I can speak a little Russian. |
|
Can |
to request permission |
Can I open the window? |
|
May |
to express possibility |
I may be home late. |
|
May |
to request permission |
May I sit down, please? |
|
Must |
to express obligation |
I must go now. |
|
Must |
to express strong belief |
She must be over 90 years old. |
|
Should |
to give advice |
You should stop smoking. |
|
Would |
to request or offer |
Would you like a cup of tea? |
|
would |
in if-sentences |
If I were you, I would say sorry. |
|
Past simple |
Sorry I'm late. I had to finish my math test. |
|
Present perfect |
She's had to return to Korea at short notice. |
|
Future |
You'll have to work hard if you want to pass the exams. |
|
Infinitive |
I don't want to have to go. |
|
Past simple |
I couldn't/wasn't able to walk until I was 3 years old. |
|
Present perfect |
I haven't been able to solve this problem. Can you help? |
|
Future |
I'm not sure if I will be able to come to your party. |
|
Infinitive |
I would love to be able to play the piano. |
Important: The explanations and examples on this page are just an introduction to this extensive and complex area of English grammar. Students of English who want to learn more should consult a good reference work, such as Swan's Practical English Usage.
9. Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually
stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions
difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in
your native language might have several translations depending on the
situation.
The following table contains rules for
some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
Prepositions – Time
|
English
|
Usage
|
Example
|
|
·
on
|
§
days of the week
|
§ on
Monday
|
|
·
in
|
§
months / seasons
§
time of day
§
year
§
after a certain period of time (when?)
|
§ in
August / in winter
§ in
the morning
§ in
2006
§ in
an hour
|
|
·
at
|
§
for night
§
for weekend
§
a certain point of time (when?)
|
§ at
night
§ at
the weekend
§ at
half past nine
|
|
·
since
|
§
from a certain point of time (past till
now)
|
§ since
1980
|
|
·
for
|
§
over a certain period of time (past till
now)
|
§ for
2 years
|
|
·
ago
|
§
a certain time in the past
|
§ 2
years ago
|
|
·
before
|
§
earlier than a certain point of time
|
§ before
2004
|
|
·
to
|
§
telling the time
|
§ ten
to six (5:50)
|
|
·
past
|
§
telling the time
|
§ ten
past six (6:10)
|
|
·
to / till / until
|
§
marking the beginning and end of a period
of time
|
§ from
Monday to/till Friday
|
|
·
till / until
|
§
in the sense of how long something
is going to last
|
§ He
is on holiday until Friday.
|
|
·
by
|
§
in the sense of at the latest
§
up to a certain time
|
§ I
will be back by 6 o’clock.
§ By
11 o'clock, I had read five pages.
|
Prepositions – Place
(Position and Direction)
|
English
|
Usage
|
Example
|
|
|||
|
·
In
|
§
room, building, street, town, country
§
book, paper etc.
§
car, taxi
§
picture, world
|
§ in
the kitchen, in London
§ in
the book
§ in
the car, in a taxi
§ in
the picture, in the world
|
||||
|
·
At
|
§
meaning next to, by an object
§
for table
§
for events
§
place where you are to do something typical
(watch a film, study, work)
|
§ at
the door, at the station
§ at
the table
§ at
a concert, at the party
§ at
the cinema, at school, at work
|
||||
|
·
On
|
§
attached
§
for a place with a river
§
being on a surface
§
for a certain side (left, right)
§
for a floor in a house
§
for public transport
§
for television, radio
|
§ the
picture on the wall
§ London
lies on the Thames.
§ on
the table
§ on
the left
§ on
the first floor
§ on
the bus, on a plane
§ on
TV, on the radio
|
||||
|
by,
next to,
·
beside
|
§
left or right of somebody or something
|
§ Jane
is standing by / next to / beside the car.
|
||||
|
·
under
|
§
on the ground, lower than (or covered by)
something else
|
§ the
bag is under the table
|
||||
|
·
below
|
§
lower than something else but above ground
|
§ the
fish are below the surface
|
||||
|
·
over
|
§
covered by something else
§
meaning more than
§
getting to the other side (also across)
§
overcoming an obstacle
|
§ put
a jacket over your shirt
§ over
16 years of age
§ walk
over the bridge
§ climb
over the wall
|
||||
|
·
above
|
§
higher than something else, but not
directly over it
|
§ a
path above the lake
|
||||
|
Across
|
§
getting to the other side (also over)
§
getting to the other side
|
§ walk
across the bridge
§ swim
across the lake
|
||||
|
Through
|
§
something with limits on top, bottom and
the sides
|
§ drive
through the tunnel
|
||||
|
·
to
|
§
movement to person or building
§
movement to a place or country
§
for bed
|
§ go
to the cinema
§ go
to London / Ireland
§ go
to bed
|
||||
|
·
into
|
§
enter a room / a building
|
§ go
into the kitchen / the house
|
||||
|
Towards
|
§
movement in the direction of something (but
not directly to it)
|
§ go
5 steps towards the house
|
||||
|
·
onto
|
§
movement to the top of something
|
§ jump
onto the table
|
||||
|
·
from
|
§
in the sense of where from
|
§ a
flower from the garden
|
|
|||
Other important Prepositions
|
English
|
Usage
|
Example
|
|
·
from
|
§
who gave it
|
§ a
present from Jane
|
|
·
of
|
§
who/what does it belong to
§
what does it show
|
§ a
page of the book
§ the
picture of a palace
|
|
·
by
|
§
who made it
|
§ a
book by Mark Twain
|
|
·
on
|
§
walking or riding on horseback
§
entering a public transport vehicle
|
§ on
foot, on horseback
§ get
on the bus
|
|
·
in
|
§
entering a car / Taxi
|
§ get
in the car
|
|
·
off
|
§
leaving a public transport vehicle
|
§ get
off the train
|
|
·
out of
|
§
leaving a car / Taxi
|
§ get
out of the taxi
|
|
·
by
|
§
rise or fall of something
§
travelling (other than walking or
horseriding)
|
§ prices
have risen by 10 percent
§ by
car, by bus
|
|
·
at
|
§
for age
|
§ she
learned Russian at 45
|
|
·
about
|
§
for topics, meaning what about
|
§ we
were talking about you
|
10.
Conjunctions
Some
words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right
out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book.
Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other
words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word
that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Coordinating
Conjunctions
The
simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating
conjunctions (you can click
on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):
|
Coordinating
Conjunctions
|
||||||
(It
may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer
than four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So.
Be careful of the wordsthen and now; neither is a coordinating
conjunction, so what we say about coordinating conjunctions' roles in a
sentence and punctuation does not apply to those two words.)
When
a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied
by a comma:
·
Ulysses
wants to play for UConn, but he
has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.
When
the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely
balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
·
Ulysses
has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
The
comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected
by a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation Between
Two Independent Clauses for further help.
A
comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a
serial list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that
final comma:
·
Ulysses
spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.
When
a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a
comma is not used:
·
Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant
congregations in Oklahoma.
A
comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
·
This
is a useful rule, but difficult
to remember.
In
most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses,
that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the
help of a comma.
·
Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American
expatriates of the between-the-wars era.
·
Hemingway
was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of
male identity.
·
It is
hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting
cultural icon of his day.
·
Although
Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find
some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.
Among
the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and or. It might be helpful to
explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by no means
exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
a.
To
suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda
sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a
response."
b. To suggest that one idea is the result of
another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house."
c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to
another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is
brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d. To suggest an element of surprise
(sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a
rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban
blight."
e. To suggest that one clause is dependent
upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an imperative):
"Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in
debt."
f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on
the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew
him."
a.
To
suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey
lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite
comfortably."
b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the
first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The
club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment
counselor."
c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of
"with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over as
subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the
team."
a.
To
suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other:
"You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
b. To suggest the inclusive combination of
alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
c. To suggest a refinement of the first
clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College
alumnae."
d. To suggest a restatement or
"correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no
rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e. To suggest a negative condition: "The
New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or die."
f. To suggest a negative alternative without
the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They must approve his political
style or they wouldn't keep electing him
mayor."
Authority used for this section on the uses
of and, but, and or: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney
Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission. Examples
our own.
The
conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used
nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or
writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
·
He is
neither sane nor brilliant.
·
That
is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It
can be used with other negative expressions:
·
That
is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as
an admission of guilt.
It
is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element,
but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:
·
George's
handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven
untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and
has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or
"a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"),
still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet
win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also
functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like
"nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry an element of
distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
·
John
plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
·
The
visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In
sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second
clause ("they," in this case) is often left out. When that happens,
the comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors
complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other
conjunctions, but or and.
It would not be unusual to see and
yet in sentences like the
ones above. This usage is acceptable.
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition,
of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction.
Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary,
and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence
with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when
you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious
sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important
than it is, say, with because or since.
Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:
·
John
thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board
of trustees.
·
Most
of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on
the train.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can
connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For
instance, in this sentence,
·
Soto
is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and
his Uncle Chet.
where
the word so means "as well" or "in
addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the two
independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league
"therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
·
Soto
has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he
avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes,
at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up
device or transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of
the sentence with a comma:
·
So,
the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
The Case of Then and Than
|
|
Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy would rather be rescued then stay on the island," we have employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made between Piggy's two choices; we need than instead. In the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin, Golding did not write another popular novel," the adverbial construction "other than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is perfectly acceptable in the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it (Burchfield).
Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide
whether the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's
a preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage),
then the word that follows it should be in the object form.
·
He's
taller and somewhat more handsome than me.
·
Just
because you look like him doesn't mean you can play better than him.
Most
careful writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's as if
part of the clause introduced by than has been left out:
·
He's
taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am handsome].
·
You
can play better than he [can play].
In
formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and follow it with
the subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is appropriate).
Then is a conjunction, but it is not one
of the little conjunctions listed at the top of this page. We can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to connect two
independent clauses; usually, they will be accompanied (preceded) by a comma.
Too many students think that then works the same way: "Caesar
invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England." You can tell the
difference between then and a coordinating conjunction by
trying to move the word around in the sentence. We can write "he then
turned his attention to England"; "he turned his attention, then,
to England"; he turned his attention to England then." The word can
move around within the clause. Try that with a conjunction, and you will
quickly see that the conjunction cannot move around. "Caesar invaded
Gaul, and then he turned his attention to
England." The word and is stuck exactly there and cannot
move like then, which is
more like an adverbial conjunction (or conjunctive adverb — see below) than a
coordinating conjunction. Our original sentence in this paragraph —
"Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England" — is
a comma splice, a faulty sentence construction in
which a comma tries to hold together two independent clauses all by itself:
the comma needs a coordinating conjunction to help out, and the word then simply doesn't work that way.
|
Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or
subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or
Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause
and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that
depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
·
He
took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment
all his life.
·
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his
dream of being in the movies.
·
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice
that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before,
since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to
introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent
element in the sentence.
Common
Subordinating Conjunctions
|
||
|
after
although as as if as long as as though because before even if even though |
if
if only in order that now that once rather than since so that than that |
though
till unless until when whenever where whereas wherever while |
Correlative
Conjunctions
Some
conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They
always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be
treated as grammatically equal.
·
She
led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
·
Polonius
said, "Neither a
borrower nor a lender be."
·
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you
do your best.
Correlative
conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with those problems. Here is a
brief list of common correlative conjunctions.
|
both . . . and
not only . . . but also not . . . but either . . . or |
neither . . . nor
whether . . . or as . . . as |
11.
Pengertian Gerund
Gerund adalah kata kerja (Verb) yang digunakan tetapi fungsinya berubah sebagai kata benda (Noun). atau dapat juga dikatakan bahwa gerund adalah kata kerja
yang dibendakan(Verbal Noun).
A. Bentuk dari Gerund adalah: VERB 1 + ING
Contohnya: swimming,
shopping, talking, playing, sleeping, eating, etc.
B. Fungsi dan Contoh Gerund
1. Menggunakan
Gerund sebagai subject
Apabila Gerund sebagai Subject,
maka Gerund dapat berdiri sendiri atau berbentuk sebagai
frase.
Contoh:
Playing football is my hobby.
|
Bentuk dari kata “playing” pada
kalimat di atas adalah sebagai Gerund, yang berfungsi
sebagai kata benda (Noun).
|
2. Menggunakan
Gerund sebagai object
Ada dua
kemungkinan jika Gerund digunakan sebagai Object,
yakni Object of Preposition (ObjectKata Depan) dan Object of
Verb (Object Kata Kerja).
- Menggunakan Gerund Sebagai Object
of Preposition (Object Preposisi)
Formula: Preposition
+ Gerund (Verb + Ing)
Contoh:
We talk about
going to Bali for our vacation.
She is not
interesting in looking for a new job.
Thank you for
helping me carry the bag.
You Should take
advantage of living here.
The rain
prevented us from completing the work.
We will be
happy by listening the music.
Billy is
not used to wearing a suit and tie everyday.
|
Beberapa preposisi (preposition) lazim
yang sering diikuti oleh Gerund adalah:about, in, for,
of, without, from, by, dan to.
|
|
CATATAN:
Untuk preposisi “to”, boleh
diikuti Gerund jika fungsinya memang sebagai presposisi,
bukan bentuk dari infinitif.
Contohnya:
I’m used to sleeping with the
window open.
I’m accustomed to sleeping with the
window open.
I look forward to going home
next month.
|
- Menggunakan Gerund Sebagai Object
of Verb (Object Kata Kerja)
Formula: VERB
+ Gerund (Verb + Ing)
Kata
kerja (VERB) yang lazim diikuti oleh Gerund adalah
sebagai berikut:
|
VERB + GERUND
|
|||
|
Enjoy
|
quit (give up)
|
go
|
consider (think about)
|
|
Appreciate
|
finish (get through)
|
postpone (put off)
|
discuss (talk about)
|
|
Mind
|
delay
|
mention
|
keep (keep on)
|
|
Stop
|
suggest
|
avoid
|
|
|
Contoh:
I go shopping with my friends.
I enjoy playing tennis.
Brian quit smoking.
Brian give up smoking.
|
|||
3.
Gerund sebagai kata majemuk (Compound Noun) yang mengandung arti alat
Contoh:
Swiming Pool,
Swimming Suit, Shopping Centre, Drawing Book, Sewing Machine, Washing Machine,
Writing Paper, Dinning Table, Shopping Bag, Racing Car, Waiting Room, Dinning
Room, Living Room, Surfing Board, etc.
4.
Gerund digunakan untuk membuat suatu larangan atau peringatan yang singkat
Contoh:
No smoking, no
spitting, no parking, warning, etc.
5. as the complement of the verb 'to
be':
·
One of his duties is attending meetings.
·
The hardest thing about learning English
is understanding the gerund.
·
One of life's pleasures is having breakfast
in bed.
C.
SUSUNAN
Kalimat yang
menggunakan bentuk gerund memiliki beberapa variasi susunan, yaitu :
1. Verb + Gerund
Pola :
|
S + V +
Gerund
|
Contoh :
- They avoid discussing too much.
- She enjoys talking about the topic.
2. Adjective + Gerund
Pola :
|
S + To Be +
Adjective + Gerund
|
Contoh :
- We are busy finishing the school report.
- The book is worth reading.
3. Preposition + Gerund
Pola :
|
S + V +
Gerund + to + Gerund
|
Contoh :
- They prefer dancing to singing.
- He prefers playing badminton to football.
Pola
|
Preposition +
Gerund + S + V
|
Contoh :
- Before watching TV, they have to finish their task.
- After reading the letter, he looked very sad.
4. Prepositional phrase + Gerund
Pola :
|
S + V +
Preposition + Gerund
|
Contoh :
- They keep on discussing about the problem.
- She is thinking of sending a letter of complaint.
5. Object + Gerund
Pola :
|
S + V + O +
Gerund
|
Contoh :
- They don't mind you talking too much.
- She likes her telling the case.
6. Infinitive + Gerund
Pola :
|
S + V-inf +
Gerund
|
Contoh :
- They go fishing with their friends.
- He goes climbing the mountain.
D. Daftar Kata Yang Diikuti Gerund.
Tidak semua kata dapat diikuti dengan bentuk gerund.
Ada kelompok kata yang diikuti bare infinitive dan ada pula kelompok kata yang
diikuti to infinitive. Kelompok kata yang diikuti gerund dapat dilihat dalam
daftar berikut :
|
Kelompok Kata
yang Diikuti Gerund
|
Arti
|
|
Admit
|
Mengakui
|
|
appreciate
|
Menghargai
|
|
Avoid
|
Menghindari
|
|
be accustomed to
|
terbiasa dengan
|
|
consider
|
Menimbang
|
|
be used to
|
terbiasa dengan
|
|
can’t help
|
tidak dapat tahan untuk tidak
|
|
can’t stand
|
tidak dapat bertahan
|
|
complete
|
Melengkapi
|
|
Delay
|
Menunda
|
|
Deny
|
Menolak
|
|
discuss
|
Mendiskusikan
|
|
Enjoy
|
Menikmati
|
|
Finish
|
Menyelesaikan
|
|
Hate
|
Membenci
|
|
Keep
|
Terus
|
|
Like
|
Menyukai
|
|
look forward to
|
Menanti
|
|
mention
|
Menyebutkan
|
|
Mind
|
Berkeberatan
|
|
object to
|
berkeberatan dengan
|
|
postpone
|
Menunda
|
|
practice
|
Mempraktikan
|
|
Quit
|
Berhenti
|
|
Regret
|
Menyesal
|
|
risk
|
Beresiko
|
|
suggest
|
Menyarankan
|
|
understand
|
Memahami
|
12.
Elliptical
Sentences
|
Ada
3 bentuk kalimat ellipsis:
1. Positive Elliptics 2. Negative Elliptics 3. Opposite Elliptics |
Elliptical sentences atau ellipsis adalah bentuk kalimat
yang disederhanakan dengan cara menggabungkan dua kalimat menjadi satu kalimat.
Penggabungan itu dilakukan dengan cara menghilangkan salah satu unsur kalimat
yang sama dari kalimat 1 dan kalimat 2.
Kalimat ellipsis ini bisa dibentuk jika:
* Kedua kalimat memiliki unsur kalimat yang sama. (Unsur kalimat; Subject, Predicate, Object/Complement)
* Kedua kalimat menggunakan tenses yang sama, dengan pola predikat yang sama. Bila tensesnya sama, tetapi pola predikatnya berbeda, kedua kalimat tidak bisa disederhanakan dengan pola ellipsis.
Contoh: He is at home. (P = to be)
I go home. (P = Verb)
Kalimat ellipsis ini bisa dibentuk jika:
* Kedua kalimat memiliki unsur kalimat yang sama. (Unsur kalimat; Subject, Predicate, Object/Complement)
* Kedua kalimat menggunakan tenses yang sama, dengan pola predikat yang sama. Bila tensesnya sama, tetapi pola predikatnya berbeda, kedua kalimat tidak bisa disederhanakan dengan pola ellipsis.
Contoh: He is at home. (P = to be)
I go home. (P = Verb)
1. POSITIVE
ELLIPTICS (too dan so)
Too dan so (=juga) digunakan jika kedua kalimat
berbentuk positif.
Pola kalimatnya:
Atau
Contoh:
I am an artist. Maya is an artist.
- I am an artist and Maya is too.
- I am an artist and so is Maya
I like tea. Ronaldo likes tea.
- I like tea and Ronaldo is too.
- I like tea and so is Ronaldo.
Dora went to London. Emon went to London.
- Dora went to London and Emon did too.
- Dora went to London and so did Emon.
Rudi can speak Japanese. Susi can speak Japanese.
- Rudi can speak Japanese and Susi can too.
- Rudi can speak Japanese and so can Susi.
2. NEGATIVE ELLIPTICS (either dan neither)
Pola kalimatnya:
Atau
Contoh:
I am an artist. Maya is an artist.
- I am an artist and Maya is too.
- I am an artist and so is Maya
I like tea. Ronaldo likes tea.
- I like tea and Ronaldo is too.
- I like tea and so is Ronaldo.
Dora went to London. Emon went to London.
- Dora went to London and Emon did too.
- Dora went to London and so did Emon.
Rudi can speak Japanese. Susi can speak Japanese.
- Rudi can speak Japanese and Susi can too.
- Rudi can speak Japanese and so can Susi.
2. NEGATIVE ELLIPTICS (either dan neither)
Either dan neither (= juga tidak) digunakan jika kedua kalimat berbentuk negative.
Pola kalimatnya:
Atau
Contoh:
I am not an artist. Maya is not an artist.
- I am not an artist and Maya isn’t either.
- I am not an artist and neither is Maya.
I don’t like tea. Ronaldo doesn’t like tea.
- I don’t like tea and Ronaldo doesn’t either.
- I don’t like tea and neither does Ronaldo.
Dora didn’t go to London. Emon didn’t go to London.
- Dora didn’t go to London and Emon didn’t either.
- Dora didn’t go to London and neither did Emon.
Rudi cannot speak Japanese. Susi cannot speak Japanese.
- Rudi can’t speak Japanese and Susi can’t either.
- Rudi can’t speak Japanese and neither can Susi.
3.
OPPOSITE ELLIPTICS (but)
But (=tetapi) digunakan jika kedua kalimat bertentangan.
Pola kalimatnya:
Atau
Contoh:
I am an artist. Maya is not an artist.
- I am an artist but Maya is not.
I don’t like tea. Ronaldo like tea.
- I don’t like tea but Ronaldo does.
Dora went to London. Emon didn’t go to London.
- Dora went to London but Emon didn’t
Rudi cannot speak Japanese. Susi can speak Japanese.
- Rudi cannot speak Japanese but Susi can.
